Anyone interested in the science behind the claim that Scott and Bowers misrepresented the temperature records on their return from the Pole, shoud look at the Blog “Scott’s ‘suicide'” dated June 8 2015. Here there is an in depth discussion about the methods employed to come to the conclusion that the data was manipulated.
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Ancient Sperm
19 JulDid you know that fossilised sperm found in a worm cocoon from Antarctica has been found to be 50,000,000 years old? The cocoon is the worm’s egg case, created when the worm first secretes a tube around its body and then leaves this tube with sperm and egg inside. The mucus tube hardens, sperm and egg mix, worm embryos are created. This sperm must have been trapped in the cocoon case; the oldest sperm ever found.
This is exceptionally rare; the non-skeletal parts of animals obviously disintegrate. The sperm was found in a tiny piece of cocoon wall, when a routine sediment sample from Antarctica was examined in the Swedish Museum of Natural History. The discovery sheds light on the evolution of the creatures; the fossilised sample looks most like the ‘crayfish worm’, which live on the bodies of freshwater crayfish in the Northern Hemisphere. This suggests that the animals had a much bigger geographical range than they do to day.
The scientists hope that when they examine other fossil cocoons from different parts of the world they may find more trapped sperm or other micro-organisms.
Research into ancient and modern march on together!
The Falklands
27 JunI recently attended a presentation about the Falkland Islands. I found it useful and felt a blog might be helpful to others.
The islands remain in the public consciousness because of the ongoing sovereignty dispute between Britain and Argentina that continues despite the fact that the islanders (and the British), considered the situation settled after the 1982 conflict between the two countries.
The presence of oil in commercial quantities has recently reawakened Argentine’s interest in the Falklands Dependency. There is oil to the North East of the island and in the South. Argentina threatens to prosecute companies that drill for oil around the archipelago. Their government states that it may be forced to take defensive action to protect its natural resources, (which are within the internationally recognised off- shore sea limits of the Falklands Dependency)
British Foreign Secretary Philip Hammond, accuses the Argentines of bullying. He states that the Falkland Islanders have a perfect right to develop their own economic resources..
The island remains well defended and in a state of alert, a situation well appreciated by the islanders: low flying jets represent the ‘sound of freedom’. The islanders themselves (about 3000) do not control defence priorities, but otherwise the island is self-.governed to a large extent. A cradle-to-grave welfare system, hospital, airport, docks, freezer plants, and roads are fully established.
The prosperity of the island relates to commercial fishing (particularly squid, two local species are particularly popular with consumers), sheep (about 50.000) and tourism which is the second largest part of the economy; the war brought the Islands new found fame and tourists (about 60,000 visitors) travel to see the islands’ wildlife and to go on tours of the war memorial sites.
The Falkland Island history goes back for hundreds of years. The islands have been claimed by France Britain Spain and Argentina at various times. The British settled in the islands in 1833, Argentina invaded on 2 April 1982. Britain responded with an expeditionary force that caused the Argentines to surrender. Argentina argues that the Brutish abandoned the islands in the late 1700s, never occupied the site of the capital, Port Stanley and maintain their claim as heirs of the Spanish empire. The British claim that the expeditionary force of 1982 was to protect the islanders, who wished to remain British and to continue to defend them against any Argentine assault.
The Falklands are not the only far flung unexpected British dependency-the Channel Islands, a few miles off the French Coast, are British, a remnant of William the Conqueror’s Duchy of Normandy. The Spanish eye Gibraltar. It is the Falklands’ huge market potential that makes it unique.
I feel certain that the views of the islanders will have not changed. Their destiny is in their own hands as it had been since 1982.
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EXHIBITION OF TERRA NOVA PHOTOGRAPHS IN SCOTT POLAR INSTITUTE
26 MayThis is an evocative group of images chosen from the thousands held in the SPRI collection relating to the 1910-14 British Antarctic Expedition to the South Pole
Scott wanted to record accurately the work, the living and camping conditions, the environment and the struggles that his men experienced. He engaged the services of a well-recognised ‘Camera Artist’ Herbert George Ponting. Ponting was well known for the quality of photographs he had made during his travels in China and Japan and he made the most beautiful records of Antarctic life on the Terra Nova expedition.
Ponting did not go on the long sledge journeys and did not accompany Scott and his team on their attempt at the Pole. He had to teach team members the difficult art of photography: Scott, Levick, Debenham, Gran, Taylor, Bowers and Wright picked up the intricacies with varying degrees of proficiency. They all made valuable records of their journeys.
Scott and Bowers recorded the final journey. The two had eventually captured the art well enough to make an important historical record of one of the most famous expeditions in Antarctica, but the learning process was not without problems. Ponting insisted that the men must show six correctly exposed negatives from six plates before progressing to colour filters (which were used to manipulate the contrast between blue and other colours in the black and white films). In training ‘Scott’s zeal outran his capacity’ on some occasions. Once, when no film appeared after developing for a few minutes, careful enquiry revealed that though he had put in the plate holder and set the shutter and checked other requirements he had finally forgotten to take the cap off the lens. Ponting reflected on how often he had made similar errors!
The final image of the five exhausted men at the South Pole was taken by Bowers, who released the shutter via a long thread.
Scott used a camera from A.E. Stacey and Co for his images, Bowers used a smaller camera. An orthochromic black/white photographic film was used. Scott’s photos were sent back to Base with the last returning team. Bowers images were found in the tent that contained the bodies of the three dead heroes when it was discovered by a search party led by Surgeon Atkinson, eight months after their deaths.
The exhibition brings the tragic story to light again and is well worth visiting.
SouthPole-sium v.2
9 MayWhat a fantastic three days – a meeting of Antarctic enthusiasts in Craobh Haven, Scotland and held in the home of the Laird of Lunga, whose daughter Antonia Lindsay-MacDougal welcomed us as did Falcon Scott, grandson of Robert Falcon Scott.
I had never visited Argyll previously, it is beautiful and impressive, mountains, lochs and on this occasion, sunshine – I can see why the Victorians were so enthusiastic about Scotland.
Rob Stephenson, the coordinator, who runs The Antarctic Circle, arranges an unusual conference in that there are only one or two ‘pre-booked’ talks. For most of the three days any delegate can speak on his/her interest (to a maximum of fifteen minutes) and this makes for a fascinating collection of subjects such as: What the whalers really told Shackleton (Rob Burton); A book launch by David Hirzel on Tom Crean’s ‘Discovery’; Cherry-Garrard and T.E.Lawrence (Alison Jolley); Did smoking kill Scott and Shackleton? (Mick Parker) -in my opinion not at all- Crossing the mountains of South Georgia (Trevor Potts); Comparing the Southern Polar journeys of Shackleton and Scott (Mike Tarver); An update on the Scott Photos (David Wilson) and a review of Scott’s ‘Antarctics’ in the First World War (Ann Strathie) plus many more excellent topics. Bob Headland of the Scott Polar Research Institute gave the set talk on ‘Scotland in the Antarctic’ and Bob Burton gave a fascinating vignette on the ‘Strange and Awful History of Scotland’. There was a quiz, a banquet and of course, a group photo.
There were over sixty delegates from Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, Norway, the UK and the USA. It is a truly remarkable meeting and I look forward to the third SouthPole-sium
Scurvy
26 AprScurvy is due to a deficiency of ascorbic acid. It is cured by adequate quantities of vitamin C or citrus fruits.
At two recent talks about Shackleton I was asked about scurvy—did Shackleton get scurvy? Was the cause of the disease known in the early 1900s? The answers are; yes to the first question, no to the second
Shackleton did of course, famously suffer from scurvy in the 1902/3 ‘Southern Journey’ when, with Scott and Edward Wilson, he developed signs of the disease as they neared their furthest South point of 82° 11’S latitude. Shackleton was by far the worst on the return journey; in fact Wilson, at one point, thought he might die. When the party returned to base, Scott was sent him home on the relief ship ‘Morning’ on health grounds. This was a devastating blow for a proud and ambitious man and made him doubly keen to avoid the disease on his further expeditions.
Shackleton’s Imperial Trans Antarctic Expedition included the ship ‘Aurora’ that sailed to the Ross Sea. ‘Aurora’s’ brief was to provide supplies for Shackleton’s party at the end of their Trans Antarctic crossing (in fact his party dis not actually get onto the continent) and one of this Ross party died of scurvy. Shackleton’s main party do not appear to have suffered from the disease, probably probably because Shackleton was so well aware of the necessity of preventative action and provided seal meat and importantly, seal liver on a regular basis. He also took preserved fruit and vegetables.
But why was there still uncertainty about the disease in the early 1900s? This was because of a lack of conviction and consensus about the benefits of citrus fruits. Although for many years some ships’ doctors and sailors had used oranges and lemons to cure or prevent scurvy, many European physicians persisted in reviewing and quoting confusing literature in which all manner of possible causes were postulated.
The problem could have been solved by James Lind’s controlled therapeutic trial of 1747 in which twelve patients with scurvy (six pairs), were given treatments that had been suggested previously. The remedies were two weeks of: a quart of cider per day, half a pint of sea water per day, 25 drops of elixir of vitriol three times a day, two spoonfuls of vinegar three times a day, a purgative three times a day, OR two oranges and one lemon daily. The men receiving citrus fruit recovered rapidly. A problem subsequently was that in order to conserve citrus fruits on long expeditions, Lind almost boiled purified citrus fruit into a ‘rob’. This obviously damaged the heat labile ascorbic acid and was ineffective. Also, in his ‘Treatise on the Scurvy’ of 1753, he did not unequivocally recommend citrus fruits for general use. When he moved to the Royal Naval Hospital Haslar, in Gosport, Hampshire, he treated sailors with oranges and lemons and said that the juices should be used in the Royal Navy, as they had been so successful in merchant ships. After recommendations by other physicians, the Admiralty ordered lemon juice for the fleet in 1795 and by the middle of the 1800s there was ample evidence that scurvy was both preventable and treatable.
But there is a law of unintended consequences! In the late 1800s lime juice from the West Indies was substituted for lemon juice. Lime juice has considerably less antiscorbutic properties than lemon juice, also it was transported in containers that further reduced its potency. Scurvy returned. By the time Scott left on the ‘Discovery’ expedition he was advised by his Senior Surgeon and Sir Almoth Wright of St Mary’s Hospital, London that the cause of scurvy was acid-intoxication in the tins of food (Wilson had to taste and smell all food to be eaten each day and discard any he thought ‘tainted’).
When Shackleton went on his first three expeditions therefore details concerning the cause of scurvy were not known although Shackleton was clearly aware of the benefits of seal meat/offal after his first expedition. It was not until after his expeditions that scurvy was shown to be a dietary deficiency disease. And not until 1928 that Ascorbic acid was isolated.
The Southern Ocean and Fish
30 MarFish are a major economic consideration. The UN Food and Agricultural Organisation say that the export value of the fish trade was over £85 billion in 2012.
A large proportion of the fish trade comes from Southern Oceans and since consumer demand is expected to increase, monitoring of the industry is of paramount importance.
Illegal, Unreported or Unregulated fishing (IUU), is a major problem.
In 1982 the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (the CCAMLR) was agreed, originally as a response to increased harvesting on Antarctic krill, essential for the Antarctic ecosystem. Additionally, emphasis was placed on the protection of the vulnerable marine environments against exploitation and on conservation of the fisheries in the South by balancing exploitation with a protection programme that allowed harvesting to be carried out in a sustainable manner.
This agreement was signed by 14 states and ratified (May 2013), by 35 states including the United Kingdom. There are three Standing Committees.
Achievements are listed as:
1. Challenge of IUU fishing,
2. Establishing a Marine Protected Area (MPE) in the Southern Ocean,
3. Reduce unintentional sea bird mortality (effectively reduced to virtually zero in 2013 years by scientific and political co-operation).
4. Managing Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. (MVE).
Professor Klaus Dodds writes in the ‘Geographical’ of March 2015, of the difficulties inherent in this supervision. The Southern Ocean obviously attracts IUU fishing.
Its vast size makes regulation difficult, costly and at times thankless. He gives examples of such illegal activity and explains how ships registered in one country, can in fact be part of another country’s fishing syndicate (which may have a dispersed commercial footprint). To counteract this, the CCAMLR has introduced more surveillance and also co-operates with governments and consumers with the aim of increasing awareness of the damage done by IUU fishing.
But clearly big challenges, legal, political and basic practicalities will continue and we should be all aware of these problems. In a very small way avoiding purchasing endangered species of fish such as Dover Sole is a tiny step.
BRITISH AMBASSADOR FOR THE ARCTIC?
6 MarSHOULD BRITAIN APPOINT AN AMBASSADOR TO THE ARCTIC AS RECOMMENDED BY A HOUSE OF LORD COMMITTEE?
THERE ARE GOOD REASONS FOR GREAT BRITAIN TO HAVE A GUARDIAN FOR HER INTERESTS IN THIS REGION:
IT HAS VAST RESOURCES OF GAS AND OIL THAT IS RELATIVELY EASY TO EXTRACT (AS APPOSED TO THE ANTARCTIC). THIS MAKES THE ARCTIC AN ATRACTIVE COMMERCIAL PROPOSITON TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL STATES (USA, RUSSIA, CANADA, DENMARK, FINLAND, ICELAND NORWAY AND SWEDEN)
GLOBAL WARMING EXPERTS SUGGEST THAT THE ARCTIC WILL BE FREE OF SEA ICE IN THE SUMMER BY 2020, RESULTING IN A SIGNIFICANTLY SHORTER TRANSIT DISTANCE BETWEEN THE PACIFIC AND ATLANTIC OCEANS. THIS HAS AN OBVIOUS ECONOMIC BENEFIT.
CURRENTLY THE UK HAS A SMALL NUMBER OF CIVIL SERVANTS WORKING ON THE POLAR REGIONS PART TIME. FURTHER REPRESENTATION IS NEEDED TO PROTECT UK INTERESTS IN THIS POTENTIALLY LUCRATIVE MARKET IN A SITUATION THAT IS CHANGING SO RAPIDLY. FRANCE, JAPAN, POLAND AND SINGAPORE ALREADY HAVE AMBASSADORS
THE LORDS REPORT STATES SURPRISINGLY (TO ME), THAT BRITAIN IS THE ARCTIC’S NEAREST NEIGHBOUR BY VIRTUE OF AN UNINHABITED OUTCROP OF THE SHETLAND ISLANDS THAT IS ONLY 368 MILES SOUTH OF THE ARCTIC CIRCLE.
GLOBAL WARMING NECESSITATES FORWARD THINKING IN THE POLAR REGIONS WHICH AN AMBASSADOR COULD FACILITATE. THE UK GOVERNMENT’S LACK OF FORWARD PLANNING IN THE ANTARCTIC IN THE EARLY 1900S IN RELATION TO THE SOUTH SHETLANDS, HAS RESULTED IN LONG TERM FRICTION OVER SOVEREIGNTY OVER SECTIONS OF THE SOUTHERN SEAS
Isobel Williams – Author, Cruise Speaker and Lecturer 