For centuries explorers and ships have been lost in an attempt to find a path through this icy maze, a path that would allow faster transit between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans (said to be 40% quicker than through the Panama Canal). Amundsen realized that sea nearest to the mainland remained passable for longer for navigation. He was the first to sail from the Atlantic to the Pacific but the journey took years (1903-1906). His route was through shallow waters.
In 1957, three American Coast Guard Cutters, Storis, Bramble and Spar became the first to navigate a Deep Water Passage through the Northwest Canadian Archipelago but the time and costs involved were not economic in commercial terms. Now as an example of the benefits of climate change, the recent opening up of the Northwest Passage is one of the most remarkable. Previously any cargo vessel needed an escort from Canadian icebreakers.
The ice melt reached a point last year that allowed a strengthened cargo vessel to navigate through the passage without this escort. 23,000 tons of nickel were transported from a Canadian mine to China via the deep-water passage, saving time and costs – a remarkable first!
The Passage is within the Arctic Circle. Inevitably, as with the Antarctic, sovereignty questions arise. The United States, Canada, Russia and Denmark (Greenland), all have significant interests within the region. In addition, as mentioned in the Geographical (February, 2015), the Inuit population hunt and travel over the area. Canadian Rangers now mount permanent sovereignty patrols. Some Russians (inevitably) have suggested that the Rangers role is a militarization issue; the Rangers operate snow machines that keep the passage open. Let’s hope that their role will be accepted as a service to the worldwide community.
THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE
21 FebWILLIAM BRUCE AND SCOTTISH NATIONALISM
12 FebWhy did William Speirs Bruce, the leader of the Scottish Antarctic expedition,(the ‘Scotia’) become a supporter of Scottish independence? ‘Scotland is not a dependent country but an individual nation working hand in hand on at least an equal footing with her partners in the Great British Federation… An independent kingdom she has been, an independent kingdom let her remain’. An unexpected statement from a man born and brought up in London and Norfolk and the son of a successful physician. The transition was not obvious and came slowly.
Bruce planned to follow his father and train as a doctor in University College London, but before starting the training, in 1887 he attended two summer courses in biology in Edinburgh. The late 1880s was a golden period of Scottish academic and scientific life; Edinburgh was a hotbed of scientific activity. Bruce came into contact with scientists of outstanding intellectual ability He became an instant enthusiast and transferred his training to Edinburgh.
At this time the scientific significance of Antarctica had become better understood by many geographical and scientific men and Antarctic committees were set up. Probably the most influential of these was The Joint Antarctic Committee of the Royal Society (RS) and the Royal Geographical Society (RGS), based in London. Sir Clements Markham who masterminded the ‘Discovery’ expedition was Chair
In Scotland, increasing resentment of a ‘dictatorial’ attitude from London probably simmered for years and Bruce would have been aware of this as he worked with the men he so admired. Resentment would have definitely been exacerbated by a letter dated 14/11/89 (signed by the secretary of the RS Sir Michael Fowler, on behalf of his society and the RGS.) turning down, with no explanation, the request of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society to send a representative to the Antarctic Committee. Problems must have simmered again when in 1893, Sir Clements, who as President of the RGS had pitched his presidential address on the importance of Antarctic exploration, was followed fourteen days later, by John Murray, a noted geographer and Bruce’s mentor and friend, who laid a different emphasis on the priorities in Antarctic work. Murray gave a comprehensive history of Antarctic history and emphasised the need for research in all branches of science, but stated that he did not advocate ‘A dash to the South Pole’, nor ‘do I believe that this was what British Science, at the present time desires. It demands rather a steady, continuous, laborious and systematic exploration of the whole southern region’ Markham, a geographer disagreed. These disagreements and Murray’s conviction that the first expedition should be mainly oceanographic, led eventually to Murray resigning from the joint venture and supporting a Scottish expedition.
The personal fracture in relations between Bruce and Sir Clements Markham started in 1899 when Bruce applied to join the ‘Discovery’ expedition. He listed his considerable qualifications for the post (a summer in the Antarctic, three summers and one winter in the Arctic, a year on the summit of Ben Nevis) and he included details of his university training and he added that he would be happy to send a formal application accompanied by testimonials if required. Sir Clements replied that no decisions had been made as to staff but that he would be glad to meet Bruce.
Bruce did not meet Sir Clements in 1899. A message was sent to him a year later saying should apply for an assistant’s place on ‘Discovery’.
Bruce’s repeat application soured relations irreconcilably. He wrote that he had hopes of raising sufficient capital to lead a second British ship to Antarctica. Three days later he wrote to say that funding was assured. He said that the Scottish expedition would complement the British expedition.
It is difficult not to have some sympathy for Sir Clements. He had spent years canvassing, appealing, negotiating, scheming for the British Antarctic venture. He still needed more finance and he thought that Bruce’s monies should have been added to Discovery’s coffers. He felt betrayed, but his prickly, vitriolic response was bound to excite antipathy. ‘Sorry to hear that an attempt is to be made in Edinburgh to divert funds from the Antarctic Expedition in order to get up a rival enterprise’. ‘Such a course will be most prejudicial to the Expedition…I do not understand why this mischievous rivalry should have been started…’ ‘trust you will not connect yourself with it’.
Scottish attitudes hardened. In Bruce they had a scientist and explorer with more experience of Polar research than anyone in Britain. In June 1900, Bruce outlined his plans in the Scottish Geographical Magazine emphasising that the Scottish expedition would go to the Weddell Sea and be complementary to other expeditions (‘Discovery’ went to the Ross Sea).
Further correspondence with Sir Clements corroded any hope of meaningful rapprochement. Bruce could not understand why his expedition was considered a rival to ‘Discovery’. He was also a proud man and Sir Clements’ comments must have insulted him. Sir Clements wrote that Bruce had volunteered to join ‘Discovery’ and that he (Sir Clements), had the right to prior consultation.
Further correspondence did not heal the breach and Bruce developed an implacable life –long antagonist to Sir Clements and a conviction that an English based establishment dominated Scotland. He had good reason to resent Sir Clements and the influence he wielded. Ten years after Bruce had made his impressive expedition to Antarctica on the ‘Scotia’, Sir Clements wrote a remarkable letter in the Royal Geographical Journal saying that the work of the Scottish expedition was of no use as regards Antarctic discovery (the then President responded to Bruce’s protest by writing that views expressed were those of the author and that the society could not turn down a communication from a man of Sir Clements’ stature). Bruce also blamed Sir Clements for the failure of his expedition members to be awarded the prestigious Polar Medal. He considered till his dying day that Sir Clements had caused an estrangement between him and the RGS after the Scotia expedition. He became passionate about the Scottish cause and was convinced by the idea of Scottish independence
Penguins
26 JanPenguins were of great interest to the early Antarctic explorers, but where does the word come from?
Alastair Ross,a medical student, went with William Speirs Bruce on the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition as taxidermist. He made notes and a comprehensive log book on the birds they saw, particularly penguins. (W.S.Bruce.National Museum of Scotland, Box 5, File 53)
He too was interested in the derivation of ‘penguin’ and made quotes from “A Dictionary of Birds” by Alfred Newton (as cited by Hans Gadout in 1894).
There are 3 suggestions;
a) The word comes from the Welsh pengwyn “white head”. This is questioned—penguins don’t have white heads, there is no evidence of a Welsh discovery of the birds and anyway, it is thought unlikely that even if the Welsh did discover penguins, they would have persuaded English sailers to use the term.
b)”Penguin” derives from the Latin pinguis (fat). This is thought unlikely.
c) Apparently the word was first applied the the Great Auk of North America and a plausible theory is that the name is a corruption of “pin-wing” meaning that the bird had been pinioned (immobilised) and referring to its rudimentary wings. The Auk was seen in the 1500s and the name “pin-wing” was given to the birds in North and South America and, after this to the Southern penguins.
This seems a reasonable suggestion and as modern dictionaries throw no further light on the mystery, I am sticking to it.
SIR JOHN FRANKLIN 1786-1847
2 JanIn Waterloo Place, St James, London there is a poignant tribute to Sir John Franklin’s doomed expedition, planned to last three years from 1845, to find the Northwest Passage – the sea route that links the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The names of the 129 Royal Naval officers and men who lost their lives in the expedition are listed on each side of the memorial.
The Northwest Passage runs from its eastern entry from the North Atlantic (between Greenland and the Canadian Archipelago) and is contiguous with Canada’s northern mainland coast. The discovery of a route through the maze of islands making up the archipelago was considered to be a most important economic prize. Although it lay within the Arctic Circle and the passage was thought to be frozen most of the year, many speculated that the route would be considerably shorter than the long sea route via the South Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and The West Coast of North America
The route had been sought for many years and many thousands of pounds were offered as a prize to the successful navigator. Experienced seamen had failed to do this though many miles of the Northern Canadian coast and its archipelago had been explored and surveyed.
Sir John Franklin had been one of these explorers. In total he made four journeys to the Arctic. On the second, the expedition ran out of food and the men chewed leather to reduce their hunger pangs. This thrilling escapade made Franklin a British National Hero. On his third expedition he mapped over 1000 miles of the Northern Canadian Mainland coast and like subsequent explorers recorded the weather, wild life and plant life. In 1845, aged 59, he was considered an excellent choice to lead a further expedition and to gain the elusive prize.
Franklin led an expedition of 2 ships HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, (whose names are now well recognised as volcanoes on Ross Island in Antarctica). They were sailing ships but had small steam engines to blast through the ice. The ships carried food for 3 years including thousands of tins that were sealed with lead, (which, it is now speculated, could have caused lead poisoning). The ships left England in May 1845 and were last seen off Baffin Island in July of that year. It is known that initially the expedition explored Canada’s Northern coast but in the winter of 1846-47 the ships were beset in the Victoria Strait, an area of deep sea between Victoria Island and King William Island.
Franklin died in June 1847, many of the crew sickened and died. Later the same year the ships were abandoned when Captain Crozier decided to attempt to travel south overland to seek help. No one survived.
Many expeditions went subsequently to try to ascertain the fate of the men, including John Ross and his nephew James Clark Ross, McClintock (who was given buttons, needles and knives from the ship) and John Rae (Orkney’s greatest unsung hero and Edward Wilson’s personal hero) who recorded that cannibalism had occurred (hotly contested by the Great British Public including Charles Dickens and Sir John Franklin’s widow, Lady Jane who spent her fortune financing search parties).
There have now been remarkable developments. Recently the 2014 Victoria Strait Expedition was launched to find the lost vessels. Huge resources were put to the task that was backed by the Canadian Prime Minister, Stephen Harper. A helicopter expedition to an island in the eastern end of Queen Maud Gulf found remains from one of the ships; the wonderful find of an iron fitting from a davit and two halves of a deck hawser plug. Soon after a sonar towfish found the wreck of one of Franklins ships. This was subsequently identified as Erebus
Stephen Harper spoke at a press conference in September 2014 in Ottawa of the truly historic moment for Canada. He said that Franklin’s expedition laid the foundations of Canada’s Arctic history
There will be much more. The hull is amazingly intact. It may be that information will appear about the fate of Franklin. Great stuff!
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AVIAN EVOLUTION
20 DecEdward Wilson put his and the lives of his companions, ‘Birdie’ Bowes and Apsley Cherry-Garrard, at risk, when they made their scientific expedition to obtain specimens of very early penguin eggs in 1911. The three survived darkness, temperatures down to minus 76° F and a surface snow like sand, that held progress at little more than a mile on some days day. The sortie which lasted 5 weeks, was the subject of Cherry-Garrard’s book ‘The Worst Journey in the World’
Edward Wilson wanted to investigate the evolution of birds. Haekel had postulated that species pass through their early evolution in the embryo form and Wilson thought if he could get very early eggs he might find evidence of teeth or other evidence, that threw light on avian development. Had birds actually descended from dinosaurs? He chose penguins because, as they were flightless, he thought they were amongst the most primitive of birds. In spite of his fantastic efforts he did not find evidence to support the theory.
Now an international investigation The Avian Phylogenomics Consortium has revealed how birds evolved after the mass extinction of dinosaurs. After the asteroid hit some 65 million years ago, larger birds were exterminated but a few feathered species remained. These had an unrivalled opportunity to diversify.
The Consortium undertook the mass genome sequencing that has done much to explain the avian tree. Scientists examined small pieces of flesh from 45 bird species that had come from museums around the world. They were able to extract the birds’ genomes and add these to genomes of three species that had been previously sequenced. The genomes were compared and arranged into a family tree. The results of this groundbreaking work have been published extensively recently. Apparently it took nine computers the equivalent of 400 years of processor time to compare the genomes and arrange them in an avian tree.
As Wilson wished to investigate birds ARE descended from toothed dinosaurs, (as was shown in the fossil bird Archaeopteryx), but this analysis shows that their common ancestor lost their teeth more than 100 million years ago. A number of genes that allow bird song is similar to those that give humans the ability to speak.
This study throws light also on Emperors, Wilson’s particular interest. Emperors possess genes that make proteins for feathers, so that they have a dense coat that allows then to survive sub zero temperatures. The Emperor male, who nurtures his chick for weeks in the caterwauling gloom of the Antarctic winter, has three genes involved in lipid metabolism, which help it survive his ordeal without food.
Penguins evolved about 60 million years ago and have wonderfully survived ever since.
FINALLY A PLAQUE TO HONOUR EDGAR EVANS
5 DecAt last! A Blue Plaque has been put op on Middleton Hall Cottage, Gower. Wales, the birthplace of Edgar Evans. I say at last, because Edgar Evans was shamefully denigrated after his death, when news of the British expedition’s deaths reached England in 1913.
It was not understood, even by members of the returning party, why ‘The Welsh Hero’ a PT instructor and the strongest member of the party should be the first to fail and die.
Apart from suffering the problems endured by all five men: malnutrition, dehydration, hypothermia vitamin deficiencies and the most dramatic weight loss, Edgar suffered, I feel certain, from a blood infection that he received when he cut his hand whist shortening one of the sledges before the final attempt at the Pole (an organism staphylococcus aureus. can survive in the Antarctic). He would have been confused, weak, and increasingly unable to cooperate with pulling sledges and the work of the camp
The newspapers of the time make no mention of a physical weakness. Rather they concentrate on the psychological — Edgar (a man of the lower deck), had not had the education to prepare him to withstand the rigors and the monotony of the return trek, alternatively he was depressed because the British had arrived after the Norwegians at the Pole; this would affect his plans to open a pub on Gower. These blinkered comments by commentators who made little effort to analyse the situation must have been devastating to his mother wife and children, who had not only lost their man but were in addition, led to understand that his deterioration and increasing weakness had damaged the survival chances of the rest of the party.
No memorial was erected in Wales. It was of course a time of financial stringency, but the authorities in Wales must have been bothered by the clever newspaper reports and worried that Edgar HAD in fact damaged the party mortally. There was no point in a erecting a memorial to a dented hero.
Medical understanding of the horrors endured by the whole of the party has increased recently and in particular the specific problems suffered by Edgar
There was a superb memorial service in Wales at the centenary of the death, now this plaque has been unveiled. Plans for a statute (which I have mentioned in previous blogs) seem to be creeping along slowly, but the macquette is excellent and I hope will soon be on display
Also the Blue Plaque is wonderfully well deserved.
Sir Hubert von Herkomer R.A.
23 NovThe von Herkomer Exhibition in Bushey Hertfordshire, which commemorates the centenary of the artist’s death, is remarkably comprehensive.
Herkomer was widely recognised in the UK and USA, particularly for his portraits for which he was richly rewarded. But portraits were only a part of his oeuvre. His enthusiasm and immersion in a whole variety of artistic outlets and his productivity, as well as his passion for his work, leave the modern mind stunned. Many of these obsession are shown in the Bushey exhibition: paintings of the countryside, local life in Bushey, his work as an illustrator, his poignant social realism prints, portraits, his art school and theatre, his enamels and the home he built in Bushey Lululaund with examples of family made furniture and weaving. Lululaund was his triumphant monument to his own and his family’s achievements.
His art school boasted an unconventional curriculum, he encouraged his students to draw and paint from nature and life early in their training, rather than the conventionally accepted training of students spending months and months on classical casts before being allowed to progress to ‘live’ subjects. As a student Herkomer had rebelled against this ‘mindless’ repetition and his students were encouraged to develop their individual talents, rather than slavishly copying the master. This school, unusually, did not award prizes, competition was discouraged and the student’s paintings were turned to the wall at the end of each day.
Herkomer’s remarkable ability for work meant that he could keep several projects on the go at the same time. He investigated and developed many artistic outlets. His school included a theatre and film studios as well as his art studio. He wrote and acted in his own plays. With the stage designer Edward Gordon Craig he developed an overhear “moon” light which crossed the stage and was one of the first examples of overhead lighting in the theatre I am told.
One of his best-known students was Lucy Kemp Welsh who illustrated Black Beauty. Some of her large and wonderful oil paintings are part of Bushey Museum’s permanent collection.
Herkomer’s hoped his home Lululaund (designed by the American architect H.H.Richardson), with its Arts and Crafts tradition would remain in the family forever, a lasting tribute to the craftsmanship of his father and uncles as well as himself and his architect. Sadly this did not happen (all that remains now is the entrance). This man, widely renowned in Victorian and Edwardian England, honoured by king and country, a friend of royalty, lost favour dramatically (to the point of being almost forgotten), after his death in 1914. Why? There are several reasons: Though a nationalised British citizen, he was German by birth and had always kept up his ties with Germany which he visited regularly (he built another home and a monument to his mother in his native Bavaria) and his nationality was questioned by some in the Royal Academy. Although he had always hoped for a closer association between Germany and Great Britain. World War 1 clearly put paid to these hopes. Germany and things German had left too awful a scar to be forgotten. Also, his all too obvious enjoyment of his huge success had always been resented in some quarters (not an English way of behaving). Finally the war changed public conception of art. Herkomer’s work was realistic; his portraits (which are wonderful) were derided by some as ‘richly coloured photographs’. Modernism: Braque, Picasso, Mondrian and the war artists were acclaimed and these factors fatally damaged his reputation in the immediate post war years
But he was a wonderful, versatile, talented artist; He deserves to be more widely appreciated in the UK and beyond.
I recommend a visit to Bushey Museum to see this exhibition, which is showing till January 2015
THE SCOTT POLAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE
9 NovSCOTT POLAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE, CAMBRIDGE
I have just spent a productive week here. But I am always surprised at the number of people, even those living in Cambridge, who are unaware of this remarkable institute. I want to add my note of praise.
The Institute was founded in 1920 as a memorial to Robert Falcon Scott and the four men who died with him on the return from the South Pole in 1912. It is now the outstanding centre for polar research in the Arctic and Antarctic. The institution moved to its current home in 1932, when a Cambridge resident, writing about the inscription in the building (which ends videt Dei), reflected of the unexpected harmony between science and religion – the scientific advances made by the early explorers but also their faith – an issue still endlessly debated.
The centre scores on several levels: the museum (renovated in 2010), boast artefacts, paintings drawings, photographs and other material that relates to polar history, exploration and science. The exhibits emphasise not only polar exploration but also importantly, the significance of the poles in the world today. The artefacts are clearly labelled and the descriptions concise and informative. It is a popular venue for schools; I have hardly ever been there when there wasn’t a group of school children checking information, looking at the skis/boots sledges and giving the place a buzz. Some of the poignant objects displayed draw attention to the endurance of Polar explorers.I have seen people with tears in their eyes as they reflect on the endurance of the explorers.
The library (reference), covers a huge range of areas from the Arctic to the Antarctic – Canada Greenland, Russia, The Southern Ocean to name a few. The subjects covered are comprehensive: Anthropology, Meteorology, Sealing, Whaling, Zoology are listed amongst a myriad of subjects. There is a map collection
In addition the archive is truly immense. I understand it holds over 900.000 unpublished manuscripts relating to British polar history. The Picture Library also has a large collection of unpublished photographs. These can be viewed digitally.
There are postgraduate students, research associates and fellows. Research continues in Glaciology, Climate change, the Polar landscape and more. The Institute is a magnificent example of professional excellence.
Go there if you are in Cambridge!
George Murray Levick’s notebook
22 OctLevick, a Royal Naval surgeon, was granted leave of absence to join the ‘Terra Nova’ expedition of 1910. He was the medical officer on Lieutenant Victor Campbell’s ‘Northern Party’. Campbell’s brief was to establish a second base for scientific research whilst Scott’s party aimed at the Pole. The party landed and wintered near Cape Adare and were transferred subsequently (on ‘Terra Nova’), 200 miles south. The plan was for the ship to take the six-man party back to the main base before the winter of 1912. As was all too common, the ship could not break through the ice to pick up the group who were destined to spend seven awful months in a small snow cave and on horribly short rations. In September 2012 they sledged the 200 miles to their base at Cape Evans
But Levick had found his vocation. He observed, recorded and wrote about the habits of the Adélie penguins that were so much part of their lives. He became the diarist of their world. Some of his diaries are in the Scott Polar Research Institute; apparently still giving off that distinctive smell of the blubber the party cooked with and ate. His book ‘Antarctic Penguins’ became a standard work (though some of his observations on the sex lives of the penguins was considered unsuitable for publication).
Meredith Hooper, an authority on Antarctica, in her book ‘The Longest Winter’, has documented the travails of the expedition.
Now, one of Levick’s notebooks, previously engulfed by Antarctic snow has appeared, released by snowmelts around Scott’s hut at Cape Evans. After conservation work, the notebook is remarkably legible, listing details of the photographic images Levick took at Cape Adare. These are of interest to Polar enthusiasts because they can be cross-referenced with the records in the Scott Polar.
Negatives and of course Shackleton’s whisky have also been found fairly recently.
What next?
Isobel Williams – Author, Cruise Speaker and Lecturer 